1. seeds + fruits (orchids to coconuts), cones, sporangia
   
2. leaves + buds, needles
   
3. wood
   

• 40 years after quantitative pollen analysis

MACROFOSSIL ASSEMBLAGE = f(P,D,R,I)

Produced in small numbers (compared to pollen)

large (1 kg) samples needed for fossil analysis

Dispersal varies among types, but generally is over shorter distances than pollen

provides record of local vegetation
distribution less uniform than pollen

pReservation not as good as pollen

seeds subject to graminivory (seed eating birds, mammals)
germination destroys seeds
however, charcoal is very well preserved


Identification excellent, generally to species for seeds, fruits, needles

Identification texts & extensive reference collection necessary

Seeds: Shapes Colors Appendages Surface Size Embryo

grass seeds grass pollen

Wood: Identification requires sectioning Cross, Radial, and Tangential Sections. non-porous, Ring-porous, Diffuse Porous. Pore Size, Rays +/-, Parenchyma +/-

Needles: Identification requires sectioning Epidermis Hypodermis Mesophyll Endodermis Vascular Bundle

SEDIMENTS STUDIED:

• Bogs: lots of wetland species, study bog succession
• Lakes: small basins with steep sides may have upland plants
• Caves: diet of extinct animals, Packrat (Neotoma) middens
• Permafrost: stomach contents of extinct animals
• Archeological sites: charcoal

1. Solution: mixing sediment with water
   
2. Screening or Flotation: separating macrofossils from sediment matrix based on size (screening) or density (flotation)
   
3. Sorting: removing identifiable remains from 'debris' Identifiable remains placed in labeled vials.
   
4. Storing in labeled vials or plastic boxes
   

Hilary Birks (1980) macrofossil surface samples
Packrat Studies: floristic measures, e.g., Jaccards Index


	c
Aj =		X 100
	a+b+c

a = # species only in sample a
b = # species only in sample b
c = # species in common to both samples

• concentration
  
• accumulation rates
  
• abundance classes (packrat middens)
  

MACROFOSSIL DIAGRAMS

• based on species identifications (Davis, 1986)
  
• present distribution & ecological requirements of species used
  
• "If sp. 'A' was present then climate must have been . . ."