NON-MARINE RECORDS: CORRELATIONS WITH THE MARINE SEQUENCE

• Ocean cores provide a continuous record of Pleistocene climatic, but most Pleistocene studies are on land. Terrestrial studies must be tied into the marine record.
  
• One Extreme: Richard Rhue (1979), "I'm not going to use the oxygen isotope chronology unless I can follow the section all the way from Atlantic Seaboard to central Illinois."
  
• CANNOT SIMPLY EXTRAPOLATE -- NEED LAND-BASED RECORD

OTHER REASONS TO STUDY LAND RECORDS:

• SLOW SEDIMENTATION RATE of Marine Sediments
• MIXING of Marine Sediments by benthic organisms
• Poor resolution of ocean cores, difficult to see rapid climatic change 10,000 yrs
• Difficult to Radiocarbon Date: low organic matter

1. RAISED BEACHES NGDC Sea Level Database

a. glacier ice buildup
b. sea-level lowering (± 125m)
Sea Level Animations
c. beaches form during periods of stable sea level

Enwetok Atoll, Barbados, New Zealand, Florida Atolls, New Guinea (Figs. 1, 2, 3), New Zealand, California (Bull, Cooper 1986; Merrits and Bull 1989)

d. gradual, ± constant tectonic uplift moves beach above sea level
1. date terrace (uranium series on corals) to calibrate MIS (Marine Isotope Stage)
2. correlate terraces with MIS to calculate uplift rate






Dated Ridges (Broeker, 1968; Chappell and Shackleton, 1986)
MIS:	1	2	3	4	5a	5c	5e	6
age ka:	5	18	40	62	80	100	120	150
sea level (m):	0	-150	-40	-28	-19	-38	0	-145



UPLIFT RATES
Coastal California 4 m/Ka (Merrits & Bull, 1989)
Indonesia 5 m/Ka (Pirazzoli et al. 1991)
New Zealand 0.9 - 7.8 m/Ka (Bull and Cooper, 1986)

2. ICE CORES (NGDC Ice Core Database)

Useful Features:
a. Rapid Deposition (= high resolution) 100 m/1000 yr,
but compression at greater depths.
b. Outstanding Preservation of included material (cold)
Dating of Ice Cores (age model):
• Annual Layers (particulate, isotopic, constructional)
• ¹⁴C and other isotopes
• Volcanic Ashes (acidity H₂SO₄)
• Flow Dynamics (temp., thickness, subsurface topographic)



Methods of Ice Core Study:
a. Melt Layers
• cores taken in cold areas where melting infrequent
• frequency of melting = index of summer temperature
b. Gas Bubbles
• gas composition set when ice forms from snow
• CO₂ content in bubbles 100 ppm lower during Last Glacial Maximum
c. Annual Layer Thickness
• Age determined by counting annual layers
• Climate determined by annual layer thickness
d. Dissolved and Particulate Matter
• Wind Blown Silt 3-20 times greater during isotope stage 2
• Volcanic Ash also more abundant in stage 2
• More dirt in Arctic cores = MELTED during Stage 5 (Koerner 1989)
• Nitrate Ion: produced by UV radiation of N₂ (solar)


e. Oxygen (and Hydrogen) Isotope Analysis
• Mirror image of ocean core isotopes: when ocean cores enriched in ¹⁸O, ice cores are depleted. Raleigh Fractionation
• Modern temperature-isotope relationships determined
  e.g., δ¹⁸O = 0.9T + 6.4

3. LOESS DEPOSITS NGDC Loess Database

Loess
MARKER LOESS with Snails
Soil
Colluvium
Loess . . .
21 cycles in all -- of equal magnitude (ca. 2 my)
Termination II dated at 127 Ka.
Brunhes/Matuyama in "J", (note that B/M is in "I" in V23-238!)

Kukla and others traced the loess sheets into the Danube Ri. terraces to correlate loess sequence with alpine glacial sequence Wurm Isotope Stages 2-6 2 glacials Riss Isotope Stages 7-12 3 glacials Mindel Isotope Stages 13-18 3 glacials Günz Isotope Stages 19-22 2 glacials

• Loes transported from Asian Desert
  Soil formation greatest in (interglacial) monsoon maxima (An et al. 1991)
  • S - soils - high susceptibility in paleosols
  • L - loess - low susceptibility in loess layers
  explanations: (Maher & Thompson, 1991; An et al, 1991)
  1. increased deposition of magnetite in soils -or-
  2. pedogenic formation of magnetite
  Chinese Loess dated by radiocarbon dates, Luminescence dating, paleomagnetism Grain size shows monsoon strength weakest during stage 2 (Porter & Zhiseng 1995)

4. BOG & LAKE POLLEN RECORDS World Pollen Database

• Grand Pile Peat Bog, Northeastern France (G. Woillard, Sci 215:159)
  • Tied European Climatic Sequence to Seacore Chronology
  • Extensive Radiocarbon Dating
• Tenaghi-Philipon NE Greece Van der Hammen 1971 Wijmstra 05
  • 120 m core, peat at top, lignite at bottom
  • includes 8 cycles, cycle H just short of B/M reversal
    interglacials = Oak and Forest trees
    glacials = steppe vegetation
• Funza, Bogota, Columbia (Hooghiemstra, 1984)
• Lake Biwa, Japan (Fuji, 1976)
• Clear Lake, California (David Adam. 1981 Geol. 9:373)
  • Vegetation history summarized by Oak vs. Pine pollen ratio, calibrated with modern samples
    interglacials = Oak
    glacials = Pine
  • Example of dating problems in sediments older than radiocarbon limit. Stage 5 or Stage 3 ?
• Great Salt Lake, Utah (Spencer et al, 1984) Madsen
  Lake Level oscillations begin 620 - 720 Ka
  interglacials = salt desert shrubs
  glacials = Pine
• San Augustine Plain, New Mexico Vera Markgraf, 1984, Clisby & Sears, 1956
  
• Gulf of California Byrne et al., 1990
  Dating provided by oxygen isotopes
  interglacials = salt desert shrubs
  glacials = Juniper
• Wilcox Playa, Arizona, Davis et al., unpubl.
  Two undated cores
  interglacials = salt desert shrubs
  glacials = Juniper

Birks and Birks 2004

5. OXYGEN ISOTOPES IN SPELEOTHEMS

MARINE-TERRESTRIAL CORRELATION DURING GLACIAL CYCLE B

• Heinrich Events (Heinrich, 1988) are iceberg pulses and cooling events in N. Atlantic sediments (Broeker, 1994) and in ice cores (Bender et al. 1994)
• Certain terrestrial events (L. Tulane, FL, oscillations in pine pollen [Grimm et al., 1993]) have been correlated with Heinrich Events
  
  

• Dansgaard-Oeschger Events are abrupt warming events recorded in the δ¹⁸O records of ice cores (Blunier & Brook, 2001). They are followed by cooling events that may end in Heinrich Events; e.g., DO1 followed by H1.

• Antarctic-Arctic Seesaw - Correlations of polar ice cores lead to the hypothesis that Antarctic climate oscillations are out-of-phase with Arctic ones, and are linked by thermohaline circulation. However, this may be due to misdating of the Antarctic ice cores (Morgan et al., 2002).
  
• TBS: Thermal Bipolar Seesaw
  A LAG (300-1500 yr) between Antarctic and Arctic events
  Ice discharge (2 Sv) effects thermohaline circulation
  (Knutti et al, 2004)